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In 2022, Nobel Prize winners confirmed that objects lack definite properties until observed.

In a groundbreaking development, the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to John Clauser, Alain Aspect, and Anton Zeilinger for their pioneering experiments on quantum entanglement, a phenomenon that challenges the idea of local realism. Local realism, a concept rooted in classical physics, assumes that objects have specific properties regardless of observation and can only be influenced by their immediate surroundings. However, the work of these Nobel laureates confirms that this is not the case: the universe is not locally real, and quantum particles exhibit strange behaviors that defy everyday experience.

The Challenge to Local Realism

The idea that the universe isn’t locally real stems from the discovery of quantum entanglement, where pairs of particles remain interconnected, affecting each other regardless of the distance between them. Even when separated by vast distances, measurements on one particle instantly determine the state of its pair. This behavior was predicted by quantum mechanics but seemed absurd to many, including Albert Einstein, who famously questioned whether objects exist when not being observed.

In the 1960s, physicist John Bell developed a testable inequality, known as Bell’s Theorem, that showed how quantum mechanics could differ from local hidden variable theories, which assume particles have pre-set properties. If experiments violated Bell’s inequality, it would prove quantum mechanics’ strange predictions true and reject local realism. However, proving this experimentally was a massive challenge.

Nobel-Winning Experiments

John Clauser was the first to conduct an experimental test of Bell’s Theorem in the 1970s. His experiment demonstrated that quantum particles violated Bell’s inequality, implying that they do not have predetermined states, thus supporting quantum mechanics over hidden variable theories. But Clauser’s work still left open loopholes that could explain the results without dismissing local realism completely.

Years later, Alain Aspect made significant improvements to these experiments. His work in the 1980s provided stronger evidence against local hidden variables by making the experimental conditions even more precise. Yet, the loophole problem persisted.

Finally, Anton Zeilinger pushed the boundaries further by conducting experiments over large distances, including one in 2013 that closed multiple loopholes simultaneously. His team’s 2015 results reinforced the conclusion that quantum entanglement is real and unexplainable by classical physics.

Quantum Mechanics and Reality

These Nobel-winning experiments have far-reaching implications, not only for our understanding of reality but also for technological advancements. Quantum information science, including quantum computing and quantum sensors, relies on the very principles of entanglement that these physicists helped prove. Their work has brought quantum mechanics from the fringes of scientific inquiry to the forefront of modern physics.

In short, the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics highlights how the once-controversial idea that the universe isn’t locally real has now become a well-established truth in quantum science, reshaping our understanding of reality itself.

The universe may not be expanding—it’s particle masses that could be changing over time.

A new study challenges one of the core beliefs in cosmology: that the universe is expanding. According to University of Geneva professor Lucas Lombriser, the apparent expansion of the universe could be an illusion caused by the changing masses of particles over time. This idea, detailed in Classical and Quantum Gravity, also offers fresh solutions to the mysteries of dark matter and dark energy.

NASA radar data reveals a 443-foot deep lunar cave in the Sea of Tranquility.

Recent radar data from NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has uncovered a cave beneath the moon’s surface, potentially providing a safe haven for future astronauts. This discovery, reported in the journal Nature Astronomy, suggests that lunar caves could protect explorers from the moon’s extreme environment. The cave, located in the Sea of Tranquility where Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made their historic 1969 moon landing, is connected to a deep pit and could serve as a natural shelter from cosmic radiation and temperature fluctuations.

Radar Reveals Lunar Caves

Lunar caves have been a topic of scientific debate for decades, with researchers speculating they may have formed billions of years ago by volcanic activity, creating hollow lava tubes. In 2012, NASA’s LRO first confirmed the existence of surface pits that might serve as entrances to these caves. However, until now, scientists had no evidence that any of the pits led to such underground structures.

The LRO, launched in 2009, continues to orbit the moon, mapping its surface in unprecedented detail. Over 200 pits have been identified, but the connection between these pits and deeper caves remained uncertain. In this study, scientists examined a pit in the Sea of Tranquility, the deepest known on the moon, using radar images from 2010. The pit measures over 300 feet across, with a floor that lies between 410 and 443 feet below the surface. Researchers found evidence of a cave connected to the pit, which is estimated to be at least 130 feet wide and tens of yards long.

Implications for Lunar Exploration

Lunar caves could be key to establishing human bases on the moon. According to Katherine Joy, a planetary scientist at the University of Manchester, the thick rock ceilings of these caves could offer much-needed protection from extreme temperature shifts and harmful radiation, making them ideal locations for future moon missions. By studying these caves, scientists also hope to learn more about the moon’s volcanic history and find the best spots to build safe, shielded lunar habitats.

However, accessing these caves won’t be easy. The steep slopes and loose debris around the pit’s entrance make it challenging for explorers to descend safely. Robert Wagner, a research specialist at Arizona State University, notes that getting in and out of the cave will require a significant amount of infrastructure.

Still, researchers are excited by the possibilities. Leonardo Carrer, one of the study’s co-authors, expressed his thrill at discovering the cave, calling it “really exciting” to be among the first humans to see it. The team hopes further exploration of lunar caves will provide more insights into both the moon’s geology and its potential for human exploration.

Future missions may involve more in-depth studies of these underground structures, which could reveal the best locations for building secure lunar bases—essential for humanity’s return to the moon and beyond.

Astronauts might need to use “jet packs or a lift” to get out of the cave, Helen Sharman, the first British astronaut to travel to space, says to BBC News.

A 17-hour search of over 10 million stars found no signs of alien technology.

A recent large-scale survey looking for extraterrestrial life scanned over 10 million stars but did not detect any evidence of alien technology. The study, published in the Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia, used the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA), a massive array of 4,096 antennas located in Western Australia, to search for “technosignatures”—radio signals that might indicate advanced alien civilizations.

The Search for Alien Technosignatures

The MWA survey, led by Chenoa Tremblay from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and Stephen Tingay from the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), focused on the Vela constellation. This area of space is scientifically significant because many stars have died and exploded, making it a fertile region for new star formation. Researchers hoped that this stellar environment might also be conducive to finding evidence of extraterrestrial life.

The team spent 17 hours listening for repeating radio signals, similar to a “ping” sound, that might escape from an alien planet or represent a deliberate transmission. Despite scanning over 10.3 million stellar sources, including six known exoplanets, they found no unknown signals. The researchers likened their search to studying a swimming pool’s volume of water in an entire ocean, highlighting the enormous challenge of locating technosignatures in space.

Limits and Future Efforts

One of the significant limitations of the search is that it assumes extraterrestrial civilizations would have developed radio technology similar to what we use on Earth. As Tremblay notes, intelligent alien life may exist but might communicate using methods we cannot detect. The search for life, therefore, remains an ongoing process of refining techniques and exploring new regions of space.

Tremblay’s research also includes studying simple molecules essential for life, which could offer a different pathway to finding extraterrestrial life. By identifying the chemical signals that might indicate life, scientists may one day detect life forms that do not rely on advanced technology like radio transmissions.

In a related effort, astronomers from the University of Manchester and the Breakthrough Listen collaboration have been narrowing down the search for intelligent life within the Milky Way. Their recent study, published in early September, set new constraints on radio transmissions, showing that fewer than 0.04% of star systems in our galaxy could potentially host detectable alien civilizations.

Progress in the Search for Life

While this particular SETI survey did not yield results, the search for life beyond Earth continues with new missions. NASA’s Perseverance rover and China’s Tianwen-1 mission, both currently exploring Mars, are equipped with tools to search for ancient or current microbial life on the Red Planet. These missions represent ongoing efforts to uncover the mysteries of life in the universe.

In the vast and dark forest of the cosmos, the search for life is far from over. As technologies improve and our understanding of space deepens, the next breakthrough could be just around the corner.

Perseverance’s recent find on Mars revealed three key signs of ancient life on one rock.

Astronomers used X-rays to calculate a black hole spinning at nearly half the speed of light.

Astronomers have discovered a new way to study black holes, the mysterious cosmic entities that destroy anything in their path. By observing X-ray bursts from a star being torn apart by a black hole, researchers calculated the black hole’s spin rate for the first time using X-rays. The black hole was found spinning at nearly 50 percent of the speed of light. This research, published in Science, opens new possibilities for understanding black holes’ behavior and evolution.

Stellar Destruction and X-ray Emissions

The discovery dates back to November 2014, when astronomers observed a supermassive black hole in a galaxy 300 million light years away. This black hole ripped apart a star that had ventured too close, an event known as a tidal disruption flare. The flare generated intense bursts of X-rays that were visible from Earth. Since black holes themselves don’t produce many X-rays, researchers saw an opportunity to study this flare closely.

Led by scientists from MIT, the team analyzed data from various space telescopes and found something unusual. They noticed that X-ray emissions were appearing every 131 seconds near the black hole’s event horizon, the boundary where objects start to be pulled in. These periodic X-ray bursts, which lasted over 450 days, increased the total X-ray emissions by 40 percent. This consistent pattern provided crucial clues about the black hole’s spin.

A Two-Star System at Play

The team believes that two stars, not just one, were involved in this event. In 2014, the black hole destroyed a passing star, and the remnants were pulled into its gravitational field. Some of the stellar debris was devoured by the black hole, while other fragments settled into the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) around the black hole, where they continued to emit X-rays.

Interestingly, the researchers think that a second star, likely a white dwarf, was already orbiting the black hole in the same region. The gravitational pull of this dense white dwarf may have attracted the X-ray-emitting debris, forming a ring of radiation that brightened each time the star orbited the black hole. This orbit occurred every 131 seconds, creating the periodic X-ray flares that researchers detected.

By combining the orbital speed of the star with the estimated mass of the black hole—about one million times the mass of the Sun—the team calculated the black hole’s rotation speed. They determined that it was spinning at roughly half the speed of light.

Unlocking Black Hole Secrets

Although the black hole’s speed is slower than other known black holes, which can spin at 99 percent of the speed of light, this marks the first time researchers have used tidal disruption flares to measure a black hole’s spin. Lead author Dheeraj Pasham of MIT explained, “This is the first time we’re able to use tidal disruption flares to constrain the spins of supermassive black holes.”

Because tidal disruption flares only emit X-rays for a limited time, witnessing one is extremely rare. Still, the researchers plan to study more flare events in both younger and older black holes to understand whether black holes speed up as they age. This information could provide new insights into how black holes evolve and how they interact with the stars in their galaxies.

The kilonova from a neutron star collision formed a surprisingly perfect spherical explosion, baffling scientists.

In 2017, astronomers witnessed the first-ever recorded collision of two neutron stars, named GW170817. This event provided groundbreaking insights into neutron star collisions and their aftermaths. However, recent analysis of the explosion, known as a kilonova, has revealed an unexpected and puzzling discovery: the explosion was a near-perfect sphere. This finding has surprised scientists, challenging long-standing theories about such collisions.

A Spherical Mystery

Astrophysicists expected the kilonova explosion to be asymmetrical, based on models developed over the past 25 years. These models predicted a flattened, irregular shape due to the nature of the collision, where two super-dense stars orbit each other hundreds of times per second before merging. Instead, what the researchers found was a completely spherical explosion. This revelation has left experts questioning their previous understanding of neutron star collisions.

Darach Watson, an astrophysicist at the Niels Bohr Institute, expressed his astonishment at the findings. “It makes no sense that it is spherical, like a ball,” he remarked. According to the researchers, this means there are gaps in the current theories and simulations of kilonovae, suggesting that unknown physics might be at play.

Uncovering Possible Explanations

The spherical shape hints at a new layer of energy involved in these collisions. One possible explanation revolves around the idea of a hypermassive neutron star that forms briefly before collapsing into a black hole. This extremely powerful neutron star, supported by an immense magnetic field, may cause a “magnetic bomb” effect when it collapses. This massive energy release could explain why the kilonova appears spherical, smoothing out any asymmetry that would typically occur in such explosions.

There’s also the question of how heavy elements, such as gold and uranium, form in these collisions. Sneppen’s team detected strontium, a relatively lighter element, distributed symmetrically across the explosion. However, heavier elements were expected to form in different regions of the kilonova. This has led to speculation that neutrinos, elementary particles emitted during the event, might play a critical role in influencing how these elements are forged. These neutrinos could be converting neutrons into protons and electrons, creating more light elements than previously predicted.

The Road Ahead

While these findings have posed new questions, they have also opened the door to further research. The perfect spherical shape and the role of neutrinos hint at complex mechanisms occurring during neutron star collisions that scientists have yet to fully understand. More observations of similar collisions could help unravel these mysteries.

For now, the spherical kilonova from GW170817 has sparked renewed interest in neutron star mergers and the physics behind them, with scientists hoping that future detections will provide more clues about the unseen forces shaping these cosmic events.

The research has been published in Nature.